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==History== ===Digital circuits=== In the 1930s, Japanese [[NEC]] engineer [[Akira Nakashima]] introduced [[switching circuit theory]]. In a series of papers published from 1934 to 1936, he formulated a [[Wikipedia:Two-element Boolean algebra|two-valued Boolean algebra]], which he discovered independently, as a way to analyze and design circuits by algebraic means.<ref>[https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ieejfms/124/8/124_8_720/_article History of Research on Switching Theory in Japan], ''IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials'', Vol. 124 (2004) No. 8, pp. 720-726, [[Wikipedia:Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan|Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan]]</ref><ref>[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0002.html Switching Theory/Relay Circuit Network Theory/Theory of Logical Mathematics], IPSJ Computer Museum, [[Wikipedia:Information Processing Society of Japan|Information Processing Society of Japan]]</ref><ref name="historical">Radomir S. Stanković ([[Wikipedia:University of Niš|University of Niš]]), Jaakko T. Astola (Tampere University of Technology), Mark G. Karpovsky ([[Wikipedia:Boston University|Boston University]]), [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.66.1248 Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory], 2007, DOI 10.1.1.66.1248</ref><ref name="nakashima">Radomir S. Stanković, Jaakko Astola (2008), [http://ticsp.cs.tut.fi/reports/reprint-nakashima-rr.pdf Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory], TICSP Series #40, Tampere International Center for Signal Processing, [[Wikipedia:Tampere University of Technology|Tampere University of Technology]]</ref> Nakashima's work was later cited and elaborated on by American engineer Claude Shannon,<ref name="historical"/> who showed a one-to-one correspondence between the concepts of [[Wikipedia:Boolean logic|Boolean logic]] and certain electrical circuits, now called [[Wikipedia:Logic gate|logic gates]], which are now ubiquitous in digital computers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shannon | first1 = Claude | year = 1938 | title = A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits | url = | journal = Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers | volume = 57 | issue = | pages = 713–723 | doi=10.1109/t-aiee.1938.5057767}}</ref> He showed that electronic relays and switches can realize the expressions of [[Wikipedia:Boolean algebra (logic)|Boolean algebra]].<ref>{{Citation | first = Claude E. | last = Shannon | title = A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits | publisher = Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering | year= 1940}}</ref> The work of Nakashima and Shannon laid the foundations for practical [[Wikipedia:Digital circuit|digital circuit]] design, providing the mathematical foundations and tools for digital system design in almost all areas of modern technology.<ref name="nakashima"/> ===Mainframe computers=== The first electronic [[transistor computer]] was built in the United Kingdom, by the University of Manchester in 1953. Early electronic transistor computers were initially not stored-program computers. The first transistorized [[Wikipedia:Stored-program computer|stored-program computer]] was the ETL Mark III, developed by [[Japan]]'s Electrotechnical Laboratory.<ref name="dawn">[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/index.html Early Computers], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref><ref name="etl3">[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0011.html 【Electrotechnical Laboratory】 ETL Mark III Transistor-Based Computer], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref><ref name="ipsj-history">[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/history.html Early Computers: Brief History], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref> It began development in 1954,<ref name="fransman">Martin Fransman (1993), [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_6DMnS1Y12cC&pg=PA19 ''The Market and Beyond: Cooperation and Competition in Information Technology'', page 19], [[Wikipedia:Cambridge University Press|Cambridge University Press]]</ref> and was completed in 1956.<ref name="etl3"/> ===Microprocessors=== {{Main|Central processing unit}} The first single-chip microprocessor [[central processing unit]] was the Intel 4004.<ref>{{harvnb|Intel_4004|1971}}</ref> It originated in Japan with the "Busicom Project"<ref name="ieee">Federico Faggin, [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=4776530 The Making of the First Microprocessor], ''IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine'', Winter 2009, IEEE Xplore</ref> as [[Masatoshi Shima]]'s three-chip CPU design in 1968,<ref name=tout1>{{cite web|url=http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/busicom_141-pf_and_intel_4004.html|title=The Busicom 141-PF calculator and the Intel 4004 microprocessor|author=Nigel Tout|accessdate=November 15, 2009}}</ref><ref name="ieee"/> before [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]]'s [[Tadashi Sasaki]] conceived of a single-chip microprocessor, which he discussed with [[Busicom]] and [[Intel]] in 1968.<ref name="sasaki">{{cite web |url = http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Oral-History:Tadashi_Sasaki |title = Oral-History: Tadashi Sasaki |last = Aspray |first = William |date = 1994-05-25 |work = Interview #211 for the Center for the History of Electrical Engineering |publisher = The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. |accessdate = 2013-01-02}}</ref> The Intel 4004 was then designed and realized as a single-chip 4-bit microprocessor in 1970, by Intel's Federico Faggin and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima. The first 8-bit microprocessor was the Intel 8008 in 1972. It was followed in 1974 by the Intel 8080, a more general-purpose 8-bit microprocessor designed by Federico Faggin and Masatoshi Shima. The first single-chip 16-bit microprocessor was introduced in 1975. [[Panafacom]], a conglomerate formed by Japanese companies [[Wikipedia:Fujitsu|Fujitsu]], [[Wikipedia:Fuji Electric|Fuji Electric]], and [[Wikipedia:Panasonic|Matsushita]], introduced the MN1610, a commercial 16-bit microprocessor.<ref>{{cite web|title=16-bit Microprocessors|url=http://www.cpu-museum.com/161x_e.htm|publisher=CPU Museum|accessdate=5 October 2010}}</ref><ref name="fujitsu">http://www.pfu.fujitsu.com/en/profile/history.html</ref><ref>[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/heritage/PANAFACOM_Lkit-16.html PANAFACOM Lkit-16], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref> According to Fujitsu, it was "the world's first 16-bit microcomputer on a single chip".<ref name="fujitsu"/> ===Personal computers=== {{Main|Personal computer}} The invention of the microprocessor led to the development of microcomputers, also known as [[personal computer]]s. The first microcomputer was Japan's [[Sord Computer Corporation|Sord]] SMP80/08, developed in April 1972.<ref name="ipsj">[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/personal/0086.html 【Sord】 SMP80/x series], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref> It was soon followed by several other unique hobbyist systems. The first commercial microcomputer kits were based on the Intel 8080: the Sord SMP80/x series, released in May 1974,<ref name="ipsj"/> and the [[Altair 8800]], introduced in 1975. The first pre-assembled desktop home computers to come equipped with monitors appeared in 1977: the [[Apple II]], the [[Sord M200]] Smart Home Computer,<ref>[http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/personal/0087.html 【Sord】 M200 Smart Home Computer Series], Information Processing Society of Japan</ref> and the [[Commodore International Corporation|Commodore]] PET. ===Laptops=== {{Main|Laptop}}
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